Cheat sheet/Gamma

Pronouns

• jí = I
• súq = you
• nháo = he/she/they
• múy = I+you
• míy = I+they
• máy = I+you+they
• há = one/you (impersonal)

These pronouns refer back to words of a certain animacy class:

• hó = him/her/them (animate)
• máq = it (inanimate)
• hóq = it (abstract)
• tá = it (adjective)

Attach -bo to pronouns to make genitive words:

• jıbo = ___ is mine
• suqbo = ___ is yours
• maqbo = ___ is its (inanimate)

---

Nature vocab

• poq = ___ is a person
• ocha = ___ is a human
• nıaı = ___ is an animal
• deo = ___ is a child
• kato = ___ is a cat
• kune = ___ is a dog
• cıe = ___ is a fish
• hoe = ___ is a sun
• mıao = ___ is a moon
• nao = ___ is water
• haq = ___ is food
• rua = ___ is a flower

Everyday vocab

• maı = ___ loves ___
• paı = ___ is a friend of ___
• cho = ___ likes ___
• hıo = ___ greets ___
• chuq = ___ eats ___
• pıe = ___ drinks ___
• kuq = ___ says ___ to ___
• koy = ___ talks to ___
• gı = ___ is good
• huı = ___ is bad
• de = ___ is beautiful
• kıa = ___ is red
• mıo = ___ is blue
• bao = ___ is white
• kuo = ___ is black
• tı = ___ is at ___
• nıe = ___ is inside ___
• neo = ___ is on top of ___

Abstract vocab

• toa = ___ is a word
• muı = ___ is a meaning of ___
  • muıbo / semıo = ___ means ___
• toaq = ___ is Toaqic
• dua = ___ knows ___
• chı = ___ believes ___
• mıu = ___ opines ___
• gaı = ___ senses ___
• kuaı = ___ longs to do ___
• leo = ___ tries to do ___
• tua = ___ makes ___ happen
• shao = ___ wants ___ to happen
• choq = ___ uses ___ to do ___

Abstract vocab 2

• ca = ___ causes ___
• kuı = ___ is because ___
• bu = ___ is false
• le = ___ is likely
• daı = ___ is possible
• raı = ___ is something
• nı = ___ is this/that

Tenses and aspects

• pu = ___ happened
• naı = ___ happens now
• jıa = ___ will happen
• ceo = ___ starts to happen
• chufaq = ___ is happening
• shaı = ___ stops happening
• shıu = ___ happens before ___
• rao = ___ happens during ___
• bıe = ___ happens after ___
• nıqguo = ___ happens again
• he = ___ is gnomically (generally) true

Sentence structure

(Connector)	(Topic)	Body	(Illocution)
Je, (Well,)	háq bı,	gỉ máq jìe nháo	da. (statement)
Keo, (However,)			moq? (question)
Tıu, (So,)			ba. (wish)
Nhu, (Anyway,)			nha. (promise)

Rising tone

Makes a noun phrase out of the first slot of a verb:

pỏq = ___ is a person => póq = "the person(s)"

cả = ___ causes ___ => cá "the cause(s)"

If a noun for the second slot is needed, use mú and the verb form of the word.

cả => mú cả "the thing(s) that was caused"

Rising-creaky tone

Attaches a relative clause to a preceding noun.

Inside the phrase, hóa refers to the noun attached to. cy ends the clause.

• póq düa hóa cy = "the people who know"
• níaı mäı hóa jí cy = "the animal who loves me"
• níaı mäı jí hóa cy = "the animal who I love (it)"

Falling tone

Main verb.

• Mảı jí súq da. = "I love you."

Also marks any non-initial word in a serial. In serials (think "unit" of words), only the first word of the serial changes tone. The rest stays in . In the example below, only the word kúo changes to . The remaining kảto is in .

• Mảı jí kúo kảto da. = "I love the black cat."

Peaking tone

Starts a content clause, terminated by cy.

• ôcha jí cy = "that I am human"
• Dủa jí ôcha jí cy da. = "I know that I am human."
• Keo shảo jí nîaı jí cy da. = "But I want to be an animal."

Mid-falling tone

A preposition, which makes an adverbial with the following noun phrase.

It can go before or after the arguments to the main verb.

• nèo míao = "on the moon"
• Kỏy jí súq nèo míao. = "I talk to you on the moon."
• Mảı jí súq kùı pâı súq jí. = "I love you because you are my friend."

Falling creaky tone

An adverb. It can go before or after the arguments to the main verb.

• dãı = "possibly"
• Chỉ hó hóq dãı da. = "They possibly believe it."

Neutral tone

Used for function words like illocutions. Pronounced as any tonal "break" with the contour of the last word.

Determiners

Combine with a verb to make a "determiner phrase".

sa cỉe	a/some fish
tu cỉe	every fish
sıa cỉe	no fish
ke cỉe	the fish
baq cỉe	fish (in general)
hı cỉe	which fish?

Or you can omit the verb: sa = "something", sıa = "nothing"…

Conjunctions

Logical conjunctions connect any parts of speech, with a "logic and/or/xor" meaning:

• Gỉ ra dẻ baq kảto da. = "Cats are good and/or beautiful."
• Gỉ ro hủı baq hảq da. = "Food is either good or bad."
• Rẻı súq ru jí múao. = "You and I surround the tree." (Both I do, and you do.)

roı is special, and combines nouns it connects:

• Rẻı súq roı jí múao. = "You and I (together) surround the tree."

Quotations and names

Quotations start with mo and end with teo.

mı is placed before a name.

If you are addressing someone, hu should be added before the name.

Hu mí Hỏemaı, lả hỉo ka = "Hello, Hoemaı".

Remember to add some separation between the name and the following sentence with lả or something similar.

Asking questions

moq is the illocution for asking questions.

mả can be used to ask a yes/no question. (Mả mỉ Hỏemaı súq moq? = "Are you Hoemaı?")

hı 'what, which', co 'how many' may be used to ask non-yes/no questions. For example:

Tỉ	súq	hı	rảı	moq	?
at	you	which	thing	INT	?
"Where are you?"

---

Tỉsha	súq	rào	hı	moq	?
arrive	you	when	which	INT	?
"When did you arrive?"

---

Pủ	chủq	hı	rảı	ní	moq	?
PST	eat	which	thing	this/that	INT	?
"Who ate this?"

---

Tảo	súq	ní	kùı	hı	moq	?
do	you	this/that	because	which	INT	?
"Why did you do that?"

po

Used for showing possession, terminated by ga; "Pó [possessor] ga [possessee]"

Nủı pó káto ga nỉoka. = "The cat's paws are tiny."