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This page offers a point-by-point overview of Toaq's grammar. It can be used as a lightweight learning material, a cheat sheet, or a sort of guided tour through the language.
== Before we start ==
* Make sure you've read about the [[phonology]] first.
* Keep [[Toadua]] handy to look up words.
* If you have any questions or suggestions, tell Laqme / ly2n on [[Discord]].
== Sentence structure ==
== Sentence structure ==
Toaq word order is "verb, subject, object".
Toaq word order is "verb, subject, object".
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{{Example|{{red|Bu}} suao hóq.|It's {{red|not}} important.}}
{{Example|{{red|Bu}} suao hóq.|It's {{red|not}} important.}}
{{Example|{{green|Pu}} {{orange|fı}} {{red|bu}} guaı jí.|I {{green|was}} {{orange|about to}} {{red|not}} work.}}
{{Example|{{green|Pu}} {{orange|fı}} guaı jí.|I {{green|was}} {{orange|about to}} work.}}
 
Sentences can end with a [[speech act particle]] whose tone is lexical (i.e. part of the word): {{t|da}} for a statement, {{t|móq}} for a question, {{t|ba}} for a wish, {{t|nha}} for a promise…
 
The default is {{t|da}} if there are no question words, and {{t|móq}} if there are.
 
{{Example|Jıa guaı jí nha.|[future] I'll work. [promise]}}
 
You can start a subclause by saying a [[complementizer]] in the glottal tone {{Done|3}}. There's {{t|ꝡä}} "that", {{t|mä}} "whether", {{t|tïo}} "to what degree" and more.
{{Example|Dua jí, wä guaı súq.|I know that you work.}}
{{Example|Bu dua jí, mä guaı súq.|I don't know whether you work.}}


You can also use these complementizers in {{Done|1}} in the main clause. {{t|Ꝡa}} doesn't change the meaning, but {{t|ma}} and {{t|tıo}} are how you ask questions.
== Clauses ==
You can start a subclause by saying certain particles in the glottal tone {{Done|3}}. There's {{t|ꝡä}} "that", {{t|mä}} "whether", {{t|tïo}} "to what degree" and more.
{{Example|Dua jí, ꝡä guaı súq.|I know that you work.}}
{{Example|Bu dua jí, mä meo súq.|I don't know whether you're sad.}}
{{Example|Pu dua jí, tïo foı súq.|I knew how bored you were.}}


In English it seems weird to have a complementizer in the main clause (*''That I'll work.'') but in Toaq it's fine.
You can also use these particles in the falling tone {{Done|1}} in the main clause. {{t|Ꝡa}} doesn't change the meaning, but {{t|ma}} and {{t|tıo}} are how you ask questions.


{{Example|Ꝡa guaı jí.|I work.}}
{{Example|Ꝡa guaı jí.|I work.}}
{{Example|Ma chum guaı súq?|Are you working?}}
{{Example|Ma meo súq?|Are you sad? (Whether you're sad?)}}
{{Example|Tıo foı súq móq?|How bored are you?}}
{{Example|Tıo foı súq?|How bored are you?}}


== Nouns  ==
== Verbs and determiners ==


In Toaq, nouns and verbs and adjectives are all the same part of speech, called verbs.
In Toaq, nouns and verbs and adjectives are all the same part of speech, called verbs.


{{Example|Kato jí.|I am-a-cat.}}
{{Example|Kato jí.|I am-a-cat.}}
{{Example|Jara nháo.|I run.}}
{{Example|Jara jí.|I run.}}
{{Example|Nuı jí.|I am-small.}}
{{Example|Nuı jí.|I am-small.}}


We can make noun phrases (really, [[determiner phrase]]s) by combining a [[determiner]] (particle in {{done|2}}) with a verb.
We can make noun phrases by combining a [[determiner]] (particle in {{done|2}}) with a verb. Determiners are words like: the, a, each, some…


{{Example|sá kato|'''some''' that are-cats, i.e. some cat(s)}}
{{Example|sá kato|'''some''' that are-cats, i.e. some cat(s)}}
{{Example|tú jara|'''each''' that runs, i.e. each runner}}
{{Example|tú jara|'''each''' that runs, i.e. each runner}}
{{Example|báq nuı|'''[[kind]]''' that is-small, i.e. small things in general}}
{{Example|báq nuı|'''[[kind]]''' that is-small, i.e. small things (in general)}}


This always binds a "variable" that can be accessed by repeating the verb itself in the rising tone {{done|2}}.
This always binds a "variable" that can be accessed by repeating the verb itself in the rising tone {{done|2}}.


{{Example|Dua tú poq wä suao {{green|póq}}.|Each person knows that {{green|they}} are important.}}
{{Example|Dua tú poq, ꝡä suao {{green|póq}}.|Each person knows that {{green|they}} are important.}}
 
== Saying "the" ==
You can put a verb in {{done|2}} even when there was not a "binding" earlier in the sentence. This acts like saying "the" in English. The "binding" lives in the shared context or knowledge of the speaker and the listener.
 
{{Example|Luaı póq.|The person is funny.}}
 
The determiner {{t|hú}} means "the/that", too, but explicitly means we're referring to something mentioned earlier.
 
{{Example|Luaı hú poq.|That person (you or I mentioned) is funny.}}
 
The determiner {{t|ké}} means "the/this/that" when we're referring to something definite but ''not'' mentioned earlier.
 
{{Example|Luaı ké poq.|(There's) this person (who) is funny.}}
 
== {{t|hí}} and {{t|raı}} ==
 
We can ask questions using the determiner {{t|hí}}, which means "which?"
 
{{Example|Chum chuq súq {{green|hí haq}}?|{{green|Which food}} are you eating?}}
 
The verb {{t|raı}} means "to be anything". To say "something, everything, what", use {{t|sá raı, tú raı, hí raı}}.
 
{{Example|Chum chuq súq hí {{green|raı}}?|What are you eating? (Which {{green|anything}} are you eating?)}}
{{Example|Gı tú {{green|raı}}.|Every{{green|thing}} is good.}}
 
== Names and quotes ==
 
To refer to words, use {{t|shú {{small caps|word}}}} or {{t|mó {{small caps|many words}} teo}}.
 
{{Example|Cho jí shú ‹soaq›.|I like the-word "garden."}}
{{Example|Kuq jí mó « foı jí » teo.|I say the-words "I'm bored" (end).}}
 
To refer to people and things by their name, use {{t|mí {{small caps|word}}}} or {{t|mímo {{small caps|many words}} teo}}.
 
{{Example|Pu geq jí mí Sara.|I met Sara.}}
{{Example|Pu noaq jí mímo Ké Nuru Bao teo.|I read ''The White Snake''.}}
 
== Adverbs ==
To make an adverb out of a verb, say it in the rising-falling tone {{done|4}} and put it at the end.
 
{{Example|Taocıa hóq.|It's unintentional.}}
{{Example|Dem jí cíoq.|I press the button.}}
{{Example|Dem jí cíoq {{green|tâocıa}}.|I press the button {{green|unintentionally}}.}}
 
This means: I press the button, and '''me pressing the button''' is unintentional.
 
If the verb can't describe an event, the adverb says something about the subject instead:
 
{{Example|Dem jí cíoq {{green|fôı}}.|I press the button {{green|boredly}}.}}
 
Events can't be bored, so this means: I press the button, and '''I'm''' bored while doing so.
 
== Prepositions ==
If a verb is transitive, its adverb form (the {{done|4}} form) takes an object. This acts just like a preposition:
{{Example|Nıe hóq kúa.|It's inside the room.}}
{{Example|Dem jí cíoq {{green|nîe kúa}}.|I press the button {{green|inside the room}}.}}
 
I press the button, and '''me pressing the button''' happens inside the room.
 
And again, if the verb can't describe an event, the preposition phrase says something about the subject.
{{Example|Sı jí kíqtoq.|I focus on the screen.}}
{{Example|Dem jí cíoq {{green|sî kíqtoq}}.|I press the button {{green|focusing-on the screen}}.}}
 
Events can't focus on things, so this means: I press the button, and '''I'm''' focusing on the screen while doing so.
 
== Speech acts ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right"
! Particle !! Meaning
|-
| {{t|da}} || statement
|-
| {{t|dâ}} || explanatory statement
|-
| {{t|móq}} || question
|-
| {{t|môq}} || rhetorical question
|-
| {{t|nha}} || promise
|-
| {{t|ba}} || wish, command
|-
| {{t|ka}} || "hereby..."
|-
| {{t|doa}} || giving permission
|-
| {{t|ꝡo}} || warning
|}
 
Sentences can be statements, questions, promises, warnings, commands…
 
A Toaq sentence can end with a '''speech act particle''' to indicate which it is.
 
{{Example|Guaı jí nha.|I work [I promise]. / I'll work.}}
{{Example|Sea súq doa.|You rest [I permit it]. / Feel free to rest.}}
 
If there's no such particle at the end of a sentence, the rule is:
* If there are any question words ({{t|ma}} or {{t|tıo}} or {{t|hí}}) in the main clause, it's a question ({{t|móq}}).
* Otherwise, it's a statement ({{t|da}}).
 
== "To" and serial verbs ==
To make to-clauses, like "to speak Toaq" or "to create art", use {{t|lä}} and {{t|já}}.
 
{{Example|Zudeq jí Tóaqzu.|I speak Toaq.}}
{{Example|Chıe jí, {{green|lä zudeq já Tóaqzu}}.|I learn {{green|to speak Toaq}}.}}
 
This {{t|lä}} is another subclause-starting word like {{t|ꝡä}}, meaning ''to''.
 
There isn't really an English equivalent of {{t|já}}. You can think of it as a "hole" — it corresponds to the ''lack'' of a subject in English to-clauses. Instead of omitting the subject, in Toaq you say {{t|já}}.
 
{{Example|Fıeq nháo báq lea.|She creates art.}}
{{Example|Taoshao nháo, {{green|lä fıeq já báq lea}}.|She intends {{green|to create art}}.}}
 
We can actually make '''serial verbs''', like "learn to speak" or "intend to create", to say the same things without {{t|lä}} or {{t|já}}.
<blockquote>{{t|{{green|V₁}} S, {{green|lä V₂ já}} O}}<br>→ {{t|{{orange|V₁ V₂}} S O}}</blockquote>
{{Example|{{orange|Chıe zudeq}} jí Tóaqzu.|I {{orange|learn-to-speak}} Toaq.}}
{{Example|{{orange|Taoshao fıeq}} nháo báq lea.|She {{orange|intends-to-create}} art.}}
 
Another serial verb pattern is as follows:
<blockquote>{{t|{{green|V₁}} S₁, {{green|ꝡä V₂}} S₂ O}}<br>→ {{t|{{orange|V₁ V₂}} S₁ S₂ O}}</blockquote>
{{Example|{{green|Shoe}} jí, {{green|ꝡä chuq súq}} báq keıke.<br>{{orange|Shoe chuq}} jí súq báq keıke.|I allow you to eat cake.}}
 
See [[property]] and [[serial verb]] for more information.
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